Slag formation is a crucial step in the extraction of metals, particularly in the production of iron. It plays a significant role in removing impurities such as silicon, sulfur, and other undesired elements from the metal ore. Understanding the formation and properties of slag is essential for students preparing for the Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry - 0620 - Core examination, as it provides insight into industrial metallurgical processes and the quality control of extracted metals.

Key Concepts

What is Slag?

Slag is a by-product generated during the smelting of metals, primarily in the production of iron from its ore in a blast furnace. It is a mixture of metal oxides and silicon dioxide, along with other compounds that help in the removal of impurities. The formation of slag is essential for improving the quality of the extracted metal by eliminating unwanted elements.

Composition of Slag

The composition of slag can vary depending on the type of ore and the specific impurities present. However, it typically contains:

Silicon dioxide (SiO₂): Acts as a flux to lower the melting point of the mixture.
Calcium oxide (CaO): Known as lime, it reacts with silica to form calcium silicate, contributing to slag formation.
Manganese oxide (MnO): Helps in removing sulfur dioxide (SO₂) from the furnace gases.
Aluminum oxide (Al₂O₃): Assists in binding with impurities to form a stable slag.

Formation of Slag

The formation of slag occurs due to the reactions between the flux (e.g., CaO) and the impurities present in the ore. The primary reactions involved are: $$ \text{CaO} + \text{SiO}_2 \rightarrow \text{CaSiO}_3 $$ $$ \text{CaO} + \text{FeS} \rightarrow \text{CaS} + \text{FeO} $$ These reactions help in converting the silica and sulfide impurities into stable compounds that separate from the molten metal as slag.

Role of Slag in Impurity Removal

Slag serves several functions in the removal of impurities:

Fluxing Agent: Lowers the melting point of the mixture, facilitating the separation of metal from impurities.
Chemical Reactions: Reacts with impurities like sulfur and phosphorus to form compounds that do not dissolve in molten metal.
Physical Separation: The lighter slag floats atop the heavier molten metal, making it easier to remove.

Thermodynamics of Slag Formation

The formation of slag is influenced by thermodynamic principles. The Gibbs free energy change (ΔG) for the reactions involved must be negative for the slag-forming reactions to be spontaneous. For example: $$ \Delta G = \Delta H - T\Delta S $$ A negative ΔG indicates that the formation of calcium silicate from calcium oxide and silicon dioxide is thermodynamically favorable, promoting slag formation.

Physical Properties of Slag

Slag possesses several physical properties that make it suitable for impurity removal:

Viscosity: Allows slag to flow over the molten metal, effectively separating impurities.
Density: Lower density than molten metal ensures slag floats on top for easy removal.
Melting Point: Positioned between the metal’s melting point and the impurities’, facilitating selective separation.

Slag in Industrial Applications

In industrial settings, slag is managed carefully to maximize metal purity and minimize environmental impact. The main applications include:

Blast Furnaces: Continuous removal of slag ensures efficient metal production.
Steelmaking: Slag helps in refining steel by removing excess carbon and other impurities.
Construction Materials: Processed slag is reused in manufacturing cement and road construction.

Environmental Impact of Slag

While slag is a valuable by-product, its disposal must be managed to prevent environmental contamination. Proper handling involves:

Recycling: Utilizing slag in construction reduces the need for raw materials.
Stabilization: Treating slag to immobilize any hazardous components before disposal.

Advanced Concepts

Thermodynamic Calculations in Slag Formation

Advanced understanding of slag formation involves calculating the thermodynamic parameters to predict the feasibility of reactions. For instance, using standard Gibbs free energy values: $$ \Delta G_{\text{reaction}} = \sum \Delta G_f^{\circ} (\text{products}) - \sum \Delta G_f^{\circ} (\text{reactants}) $$ A negative ΔG indicates a spontaneous reaction, essential for efficient slag formation. These calculations assist in optimizing the composition of fluxes to ensure maximum impurity removal.

Kinetics of Slag-Metal Interactions

The rate at which slag interacts with molten metal is governed by kinetic factors such as temperature and mixing intensity. High temperatures increase reaction rates, while effective stirring ensures thorough contact between slag and metal, enhancing impurity extraction.

Advanced Slag Composition

Modern metallurgical practices utilize complex slag compositions to target specific impurities. Additives like magnesium oxide (MgO) and sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃) can be incorporated to address particular contaminants, improving the overall efficiency of the purification process.

Integration with Other Metallurgical Processes

Slag formation is interconnected with various other processes in metallurgy:

Desulfurization: Slag helps in removing sulfur from molten metal, preventing brittleness.
Degassing: Slag captures dissolved gases like carbon dioxide (CO₂), enhancing metal quality.
Alloying: Slag can assist in the controlled addition of alloying elements, refining the final metal properties.

Environmental Regulations and Slag Management

Regulatory frameworks mandate responsible slag management to mitigate environmental impacts. Advanced slag processing techniques focus on:

Emission Control: Reducing the release of pollutants during slag formation.
Resource Recovery: Extracting valuable elements from slag for reuse.
Sustainable Practices: Implementing circular economy principles by repurposing slag in various industries.

Case Study: Slag Formation in the Blast Furnace

A practical example of slag formation can be seen in the blast furnace process for iron extraction:

Charge Materials: Iron ore, coke, and limestone (CaCO₃) are fed into the furnace.
Chemical Reactions:
- Decomposition of limestone: $$\text{CaCO}_3 \rightarrow \text{CaO} + \text{CO}_2$$
- Formation of calcium silicate: $$\text{CaO} + \text{SiO}_2 \rightarrow \text{CaSiO}_3$$
Slag Removal: The molten slag, being less dense, accumulates on top and is periodically removed.

This case study illustrates the practical application of slag formation principles in large-scale metal production.

Advanced Analytical Techniques for Slag Characterization

Modern analytical tools like X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) are employed to analyze slag composition and structure. These techniques provide detailed insights into the chemical and physical properties of slag, facilitating improvements in metallurgical processes.

Innovations in Slag Recycling

Innovative approaches aim to enhance slag recycling by extracting rare earth elements and other valuable materials. Techniques such as hydrometallurgy and pyrometallurgy are being developed to efficiently recover these resources, contributing to sustainable metal production.

Comparison Table

Aspect	Slag Formation	Other Impurity Removal Methods
Purpose	Remove impurities from molten metal	Separate impurities using physical or chemical means
Mechanism	Chemical reactions and physical separation	Filtration, distillation, electrolysis
By-products	Produces slag, which can be recycled	Varies; may produce wastewater or other residues
Applications	Primarily in metallurgy, especially iron and steel production	Broad applications across different industries
Environmental Impact	Requires proper management to prevent pollution	Depends on the method; some may have higher environmental risks

Summary and Key Takeaways

Slag formation is essential for removing impurities during metal extraction.
The composition of slag includes compounds like CaO and SiO₂ that facilitate impurity removal.
Thermodynamic and kinetic principles govern the efficiency of slag formation.
Advanced techniques and innovations are enhancing slag recycling and environmental management.
Understanding slag is crucial for optimizing metallurgical processes in the Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry curriculum.

Examiner Tip

Tips

Remember the mnemonic "CALM Steel" to recall key slag components: CaO, Al2O3, Lime, and MnO. To understand slag formation reactions, focus on balancing chemical equations and identifying the roles of each component. Practice drawing diagrams of slag and metal separation to visualize the process effectively.

Did You Know

Slag isn't just a by-product; it has valuable uses in the construction industry! For example, slag cement is a sustainable alternative to traditional Portland cement, reducing carbon emissions. Additionally, ancient civilizations, like the Romans, utilized slag in building roads and structures, showcasing its long-standing utility.

Common Mistakes

Students often confuse the roles of fluxes and the types of impurities removed by slag. For instance, mistakenly believing that slag removes only sulfur instead of both sulfur and silicon can lead to incomplete understanding. Another common error is overlooking the thermodynamic principles that drive slag formation, which are crucial for predicting reaction spontaneity.

FAQ

What is slag in metal extraction?

Slag is a by-product formed during the smelting process that removes impurities from metals by reacting with them.

Why is limestone added during slag formation?

Limestone serves as a flux that decomposes to calcium oxide, which then reacts with silica to form slag, removing impurities.

How does slag help in temperature control during smelting?

Slag acts as a thermal insulator, maintaining appropriate temperatures within the furnace for efficient metal extraction.

Can slag be reused or recycled?

Yes, slag can be repurposed in construction materials like cement and road aggregates, promoting sustainability.

What factors affect the viscosity of slag?

The composition, temperature, and basicity of slag influence its viscosity, affecting its flow and impurity absorption properties.

1. Acids, Bases, and Salts

1.1 Salt Preparation

1.1.1 Making soluble salts by reaction with excess metal

1.1.2 Making soluble salts by reaction with excess base

1.1.3 Making soluble salts by reaction with excess carbonate

1.1.4 Making soluble salts by titration

1.2 Solubility Rules

1.2.1 Solubility of sodium, potassium, ammonium salts

1.2.2 Solubility of nitrates, chlorides, sulfates, carbonates, and hydroxides

1.3 Hydrated and Anhydrous Salts

1.3.1 Definition of hydrated and anhydrous substances

1.4 Insoluble Salts

1.4.1 Making insoluble salts by precipitation

1.5 Water of Crystallization

1.5.1 Definition and examples (CuSO₄·5H₂O, CoCl₂·6H₂O)

1.6 Properties of Acids

1.6.1 Reaction of acids with metals, bases, and carbonates

1.6.2 Effect of acids on litmus, thymolphthalein, and methyl orange

1.7 Properties of Bases

1.7.1 Definition of bases and alkalis

1.7.2 Reactions of bases with acids and ammonium salts

1.7.3 Effect of alkalis on litmus, thymolphthalein, and methyl orange

1.8 Acids and Alkalis in Aqueous Solution

1.8.1 H⁺ ions in acids, OH⁻ ions in alkalis

1.8.2 Compare acidity and alkalinity using pH and indicators

1.9 Neutralization

1.9.1 Reaction of acids with alkalis to form water

1.10 Strong and Weak Acids

1.10.1 Definition of strong and weak acids

1.10.2 Hydrochloric acid as a strong acid (HCl → H⁺ + Cl⁻)

1.10.3 Ethanoic acid as a weak acid (CH₃COOH ⇌ H⁺ + CH₃COO⁻)

1.11 Oxides

1.11.1 Classify oxides as acidic (e.g., SO₂, CO₂) or basic (e.g., CuO, CaO)

1.11.2 Definition and examples of amphoteric oxides (Al₂O₃, ZnO)

2. Experimental Techniques and Chemical Analysis

2.1 Identification of Ions and Gases

2.1.1 Test for nitrate (NO₃⁻) using aluminum and NaOH

2.1.2 Test for sulfite (SO₃²⁻) using acidified KMnO₄

2.1.3 Cation tests using NaOH and NH₃

2.1.4 Gas tests for NH₃, CO₂, Cl₂, H₂, O₂, SO₂

2.1.5 Flame tests for Li⁺, Na⁺, K⁺, Ca²⁺, Ba²⁺, Cu²⁺

2.1.6 Test for carbonate (CO₃²⁻) using acid

2.1.7 Test for halides (Cl⁻, Br⁻, I⁻) using silver nitrate

2.1.8 Test for sulfate (SO₄²⁻) using barium nitrate

2.2 Experimental Design

2.2.1 Measuring time, temperature, mass, volume

2.2.2 Advantages and disadvantages of methods

2.2.3 Definitions of solvent, solute, solution

2.2.4 Definition of saturated solution

2.2.5 Definition of residue and filtrate

2.3 Acid-Base Titrations

2.3.1 Titration procedure using burette and pipette

2.3.2 Identifying endpoint using indicators

2.4 Chromatography

2.4.1 Paper chromatography for separating mixtures

2.4.2 Identifying substances using chromatograms

2.4.3 Rf value calculation

2.5 Separation and Purification

2.5.1 Filtration, crystallization, distillation

2.5.2 Identifying purity using melting and boiling points

3. Chemical Reactions

3.1 Rate of Reaction

3.1.1 Collision theory: kinetic energy of particles

3.1.2 Collision theory: activation energy

3.1.3 How changes in conditions affect reaction rate

3.1.4 How catalysts lower activation energy

3.1.5 Effect of concentration on reaction rate

3.1.6 Effect of gas pressure on reaction rate

3.1.7 Effect of surface area on reaction rate

3.1.8 Effect of temperature on reaction rate

3.1.9 Effect of catalysts on reaction rate

3.1.10 Definition of catalyst and its role

3.1.11 Methods to measure reaction rate

3.1.12 Interpret graphs of reaction rates

3.1.13 Collision theory: particle concentration

3.1.14 Collision theory: frequency of collisions

3.2 Reversible Reactions and Equilibrium

3.2.1 Definition of reversible reactions

3.2.2 Effect of conditions on reaction direction

3.2.3 Definition of dynamic equilibrium

3.2.4 Effect of temperature on equilibrium

3.2.5 Effect of pressure on equilibrium

3.2.6 Effect of concentration on equilibrium

3.2.7 Effect of catalyst on equilibrium

3.2.8 Haber process equation (N₂ + 3H₂ ⇌ 2NH₃)

3.2.9 Raw materials for Haber process

3.2.10 Conditions used in Haber process

3.2.11 Contact process equation (2SO₂ + O₂ ⇌ 2SO₃)

3.2.12 Raw materials for Contact process

3.2.13 Conditions used in Contact process

3.2.14 Why contact process conditions are used

3.3 Redox

3.3.1 Definition of redox reactions

3.3.2 Oxidation as gain of oxygen, reduction as loss of oxygen

3.3.3 Identify redox reactions using oxygen gain/loss

3.3.4 Definition of oxidation and reduction in terms of electrons

3.3.5 Oxidation and reduction in terms of oxidation numbers

3.3.6 Redox reactions using color changes (MnO₄⁻, I₂)

3.3.7 Definition of oxidizing and reducing agents

3.3.8 Identify oxidizing and reducing agents in reactions

3.3.9 Use of oxidation numbers to identify redox reactions

3.4 Physical and Chemical Changes

3.4.1 Difference between physical and chemical changes

4. Metals

4.1 Corrosion of Metals

4.1.1 Barrier methods (painting, greasing, plastic coating)

4.1.2 How barriers prevent rust (oxygen/water exclusion)

4.1.3 Galvanizing with zinc as protection

4.1.4 Sacrificial protection using reactive metals

4.1.5 Conditions needed for rusting of iron

4.2 Extraction of Metals

4.2.1 Ease of metal extraction depends on reactivity

4.2.2 Blast furnace: iron extracted from hematite

4.2.3 Role of carbon and carbon monoxide in reduction

4.2.4 Thermal decomposition of limestone in furnace

4.2.5 Formation of slag (removes impurities)

4.2.6 Aluminium extraction from bauxite by electrolysis

4.2.7 Blast furnace equations: C + O₂ → CO₂, C + CO₂ → 2CO, Fe₂O₃ + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO₂

4.2.8 Aluminium extraction: role of cryolite

4.2.9 Why carbon anodes must be replaced in aluminium extraction

4.2.10 Reactions at electrodes in aluminium extraction

4.3 Properties of Metals

4.3.1 Compare physical properties of metals and non-metals

4.3.2 Reactions of metals with acids, water, and oxygen

4.4 Uses of Metals

4.4.1 Uses of aluminium (aircraft, electrical cables, food containers)

4.4.2 Uses of copper (electrical wiring, ductility)

4.5 Alloys

4.5.1 Definition of alloys (mixture of metal with other elements)

4.5.2 Examples: brass (Cu + Zn), stainless steel (Fe + Cr + Ni + C)

4.5.3 Alloys are harder and stronger than pure metals

4.5.4 Why alloys are harder (atoms disrupt layers)

4.6 Reactivity Series

4.6.1 Order of reactivity: K, Na, Ca, Mg, Al, C, Zn, Fe, H, Cu, Ag, Au

4.6.2 Reactions of K, Na, Ca with water

4.6.3 Reaction of Mg with steam

4.6.4 Reactions of Mg, Zn, Fe, Cu, Ag, Au with acids

4.6.5 Explain reactivity based on ion formation

4.6.6 Displacement reactions of metals

4.6.7 Why aluminium appears unreactive (oxide layer)

5. Stoichiometry

5.1 Formulae

5.1.1 Definition of empirical formula

5.1.2 Deduce ionic formula from charges

5.1.3 Write balanced equations with state symbols

5.1.4 Formulae of elements and compounds

5.1.5 Determine formula from atomic ratios

5.1.6 Definition of molecular formula

5.1.7 Write word and symbol equations

5.2 Relative Masses

5.2.1 Definition of relative atomic mass (Ar)

5.2.2 Definition of relative molecular/formula mass (Mr)

5.2.3 Calculate reacting masses (without mole concept)

5.3 The Mole and Avogadro Constant

5.3.1 Concentration in g/dm³ and mol/dm³

5.3.2 Definition of the mole (6.02 × 10²³ particles)

5.3.3 Mole calculations using mass and molar mass

5.3.4 Use molar gas volume (24 dm³ at r.t.p.)

5.3.5 Calculate reacting masses and limiting reactants

5.3.6 Titration calculations (moles, volume, concentration)

5.3.7 Calculate empirical and molecular formulae

5.3.8 Calculate percentage yield and purity

6. Organic Chemistry

6.1 Formulae and Functional Groups

6.1.1 Definition of saturated and unsaturated compounds

6.1.2 Draw and interpret displayed formulae

6.1.3 General formulae for alkanes, alkenes, alcohols, carboxylic acids

6.1.4 Definition of functional groups

6.1.5 Definition of a homologous series

6.2 Naming Organic Compounds

6.2.1 Naming and drawing methane, ethane, ethene, ethanol, ethanoic acid

6.2.2 Identifying organic compounds based on name, formula, or structure

6.3 Fuels

6.3.1 Names of fossil fuels: coal, natural gas, petroleum

6.3.2 Methane as the main component of natural gas

6.3.3 Definition of hydrocarbons

6.3.4 Petroleum as a mixture of hydrocarbons

6.3.5 Fractional distillation of petroleum

6.3.6 Properties of fractions (volatility, boiling points, viscosity)

6.3.7 Uses of petroleum fractions (refinery gas, gasoline, naphtha, kerosene, diesel, fuel oil, lubricatin

6.4 Alkanes

6.4.1 Single covalent bonds in alkanes (saturated hydrocarbons)

6.4.2 Alkanes are generally unreactive except for combustion and substitution

6.5 Alkenes

6.5.1 Double carbon-carbon bonds in alkenes (unsaturated hydrocarbons)

6.5.2 Cracking of large alkanes to produce alkenes and hydrogen

6.5.3 Test for unsaturation using bromine water

6.6 Alcohols

6.6.1 Ethanol production by fermentation of glucose

6.6.2 Ethanol production by catalytic hydration of ethene

6.6.3 Combustion of ethanol

6.6.4 Uses of ethanol (solvent, fuel)

6.7 Carboxylic Acids

6.7.1 Reactions of ethanoic acid with metals, bases, and carbonates

6.7.2 Formation of ethanoic acid by oxidation of ethanol

6.7.3 Ester formation from carboxylic acids and alcohols

6.8 Polymers

6.8.1 Definition of polymers and monomers

6.8.2 Formation of poly(ethene) by addition polymerization

6.8.3 Plastics are made from polymers

6.8.4 Environmental issues of plastics (landfills, ocean waste, toxic gases)

7. States of Matter

7.1 Solids, Liquids, and Gases

7.1.1 Properties of solids, liquids, and gases

7.1.2 Particle arrangement in solids, liquids, and gases

7.1.3 Changes of state: melting, boiling, evaporation, freezing, condensation

7.1.4 Effect of temperature and pressure on gas volume

7.2 Diffusion

7.2.1 Diffusion explained using kinetic particle theory

8. The Periodic Table

8.1 Arrangement of Elements

8.1.1 Periodic Table arranged by atomic number

8.1.2 Change from metallic to non-metallic across a period

8.1.3 Relation of group number to ion charge

8.1.5 Predicting properties using Periodic Table position

8.2 Group I: Alkali Metals

8.2.1 Properties of lithium, sodium, and potassium

8.2.2 Trends down Group I: melting point, density, reactivity

8.2.3 Predict properties of other Group I elements

8.3 Group VII: Halogens

8.3.1 Properties of chlorine, bromine, iodine

8.3.2 Trends down Group VII: density, reactivity

8.3.3 Appearance of halogens at room temperature

8.3.4 Displacement reactions of halogens

8.3.5 Predict properties of other Group VII elements

8.4 Transition Elements

8.4.1 Properties: high density, melting points, colored compounds, catalysts

8.4.2 Variable oxidation states (iron(II) and iron(III))

8.5 Group VIII: Noble Gases

8.5.1 Noble gases are unreactive and monatomic

8.5.2 Explanation of noble gas stability using electron configuration

9. Atoms, Elements, and Compounds

9.1 Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures

9.1.1 Difference between elements, compounds, and mixtures

9.2 Atomic Structure

9.2.1 Structure of an atom (nucleus, electrons, shells)

9.2.2 Relative charges and masses of subatomic particles

9.2.3 Definition of atomic number (proton number)

9.2.4 Definition of mass number (nucleon number)

9.2.5 Electronic configuration for elements (1-20)

9.2.6 Full outer shell in noble gases (Group VIII)

9.2.7 Relation of outer electrons to group number

9.2.8 Relation of electron shells to period number

9.3 Isotopes

9.3.1 Definition of isotopes

9.3.2 Symbols of isotopes (e.g., ₆¹²C, ₁₇³⁵Cl⁻)

9.3.3 Why isotopes have the same chemical properties

9.3.4 Calculating relative atomic mass from isotopes

9.4 Ions and Ionic Bonds

9.4.1 Formation of cations and anions

9.4.2 Definition of ionic bonding

9.4.3 Formation of ionic bonds (dot-and-cross diagrams)

9.4.4 Properties of ionic compounds

9.4.5 Giant lattice structure in ionic compounds

9.5 Simple Molecules and Covalent Bonds

9.5.1 Definition of covalent bonding

9.5.2 Formation of simple covalent molecules (H₂, Cl₂, H₂O, CH₄, NH₃, HCl)

9.5.3 Properties of simple molecular compounds

9.5.4 Dot-and-cross diagrams for CH₃OH, C₂H₄, O₂, CO₂, N₂

9.6 Giant Covalent Structures

9.6.1 Structure of graphite and diamond

9.6.2 Uses of graphite and diamond

9.6.3 Structure of silicon(IV) oxide (SiO₂)

9.7 Metallic Bonding

9.7.1 Definition of metallic bonding

9.7.2 Properties of metals (conductivity, malleability, ductility)

10. Chemistry of the Environment

10.1 Water

10.1.1 Test for water using cobalt(II) chloride and copper(II) sulfate

10.1.2 Test for purity of water using melting and boiling points

10.1.3 Why distilled water is used in chemistry

10.1.4 Substances in natural water (oxygen, metals, plastics, sewage, microbes, fertilizers)

10.1.5 Harmful substances in water (toxins, nitrates, phosphates, microbes)

10.1.6 Water treatment: sedimentation and filtration

10.1.7 Water treatment: activated carbon for odor removal

10.1.8 Water treatment: chlorination to kill microbes

10.2 Fertilizers

10.2.1 Use of ammonium salts and nitrates as fertilizers

10.2.2 NPK fertilizers for nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium supply

10.3 Air Quality and Climate

10.3.1 Composition of clean, dry air (78% N₂, 21% O₂, trace gases)

10.3.2 Sources of CO₂ (fuel combustion), CO (incomplete combustion), CH₄ (decomposition, digestion)

10.3.3 Sources of NOx (car engines), SO₂ (fossil fuels)

10.3.4 Effects of CO₂ and CH₄ (global warming, climate change)

10.3.5 Effects of CO (toxic), particulates (respiratory issues)

10.3.6 Effects of NOx and SO₂ (acid rain, respiratory problems)

10.3.7 How CO₂ and CH₄ cause global warming (heat absorption)

10.3.8 Ways to reduce climate change (trees, hydrogen, renewables)

10.3.9 Reducing acid rain (catalytic converters, low-sulfur fuels, flue gas desulfurization)

10.3.10 Photosynthesis reaction: CO₂ + H₂O → glucose + O₂

10.3.11 Photosynthesis equation: 6CO₂ + 6H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂

10.3.12 How NOx forms in car engines

10.3.13 How catalytic converters remove NOx (2CO + 2NO → 2CO₂ + N₂)

11. Electrochemistry

11.1 Electrolysis

11.1.1 Definition of electrolysis

11.1.2 Identify anode, cathode, and electrolyte

11.1.3 Electrolysis of molten lead(II) bromide

11.1.4 Electrolysis of concentrated sodium chloride

11.1.5 Electrolysis of dilute sulfuric acid

11.1.6 Products formed at electrodes

11.1.7 Predict products of binary molten compounds

11.1.8 Purpose of electroplating

11.1.9 Process of electroplating metals

11.1.10 Charge transfer in electrolysis (electrons in external circuit)

11.1.11 Charge transfer in electrolysis (ions in electrolyte)

11.1.12 Electrolysis of aqueous copper(II) sulfate (graphite vs copper electrodes)

11.1.13 Predict products for electrolysis of halide solutions

11.1.14 Write ionic half-equations for anode and cathode reactions

11.2 Hydrogen–Oxygen Fuel Cells

11.2.1 Definition of hydrogen–oxygen fuel cell

11.2.2 Advantages and disadvantages of fuel cells vs gasoline engines

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Formation of Slag (Removes Impurities)

Introduction